A DEFINITION OF 'PARABLE'The Greek root of the term translated into English as ‘parable’ παραβολή is found in ‘παρα’ meaning ‘close beside’ or ‘with’ and the verb ‘βάλλω’ ‘I cast’. It means a juxtaposition or comparison and appears already in the 4th century BC writings of Plato[1] and Aristotle[2]. In the New Testament, parable is considered to be a teaching aid, cast alongside the truth being taught for the sake of comparison. Much has been made of the Greek cultural influence on the Gospel writers, sometimes at the expense of the Semitic influence. In the Septuagint, παραβολή is also used to translate the Hebrew term מָשָׁל transliterated as ‘mashal’. The noun has a more wide-ranging meaning than we would typically associate with the word ‘parable’ as we understand it in English and is used around forty times in the Old Testament, having been translated as ‘argument’ (Job 27:1; 29:1), ‘oracle’ (Nb 23:7, 18; Hab: 2:6), ‘byword’, ‘discourse’, ‘parable’ (Ezek 17:2) ‘proverb’ (1 Sam 10:12) ‘taunt’ (Is 14:4). However, when examined, it appears to represent a much broader category of literary devices, including: simile, fable, riddle, allegory, symbol, example and theme. The parable can be a simile developed and expanded into a story. The Hebrew also has a verbal form משׁל, which means to ‘represent’ or ‘be like’. The verb denominative can mean to ‘use a proverb’, ‘speak in parables or sentences of poetry’. The latter is most common in the prophet Ezekiel (12:23; 17:2; 24:3; 17:3 for example). The uses of מָשָׁל will be considered in the next section. This accounts for how, when used in the New Testament ‘parable’ is at times a very loose and general term, as the use of it in Lk 6:39-42 demonstrates. The parables of Jesus share some common traits: the story is made up of basic components that are true to life, although the story itself may be fictitious. The similes used are commonly agricultural regarding seeds and sowing for example or concerned with fishing, but also coins, leaven, lamps are frequently mentioned. An overall message is generally communicated through the story, with any extra details at the service of the main message. PARABLES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT It was while researching the whole area of parables in the Bible in preparation for a dissertation on The Good Samaritan, that I came across the notion of ‘parable’ in the Old Testament. The Old Testament is brimming with metaphorical language and unforgettable imagery. The Jews had many apothegms and perceptive witty sayings, not to mention the Wisdom writings and in particular the Book of Proverbs. Some of the parables told by Jesus can be recognised in familiar Old Testament ones with the new reality of the Kingdom of God set in their heart. The parable of the Wicked Husbandmen, recounted by all three synoptic gospels (Mt 21: 33-46; Mk 12: 1-12; Lk 20:9-19), finds an Old Testament echo in Isaiah 5:1-7, as does the parable of the Mustard Seed (Mt 13:31-32; Mk 4:30-32; Lk 13:18-19) in Ezekiel 17:1-24. But perhaps those stories in the Old Testament that conform most closely to the New Testament version of ‘parable’ as illustrated in the Good Samaritan, even though they are sometimes not actually associated with the word מָשָׁל mashal, are the narratives of the Poor Man’s Ewe Lamb (2 S 12:1-4), the Tekoan Woman (2 S 14:4), the Lost Prisoner (1 K 20:38-42), the Vineyard (Is 5:1-7) and the Ploughman (Is 28:23-29). The Old Testament parables were frequently a tool in the hands of the Prophets, serving as a reminder of God’s Covenant and the Law and they provide some indications of both the moral and social aspects of life in the history and journey of God’s people. The Poor Man’s Ewe Lamb, in 2 Samuel (12:1-4), which continues to have its place in the Lectionary[3], demonstrates very clearly the power of parabolic speech. However, not all scholars agreed about its classification as a ‘parable’. Hermann Gunkel, the influential German Old Testament scholar and founder of form criticism, argued that “it affords no parallel at all to the situation to which it is applied” and consigned it to the stock of ‘fairy tales’ as it did not seem to belong to the context.[4] The parable itself is made up of only four verses and is spoken by the prophet Nathan. It is concise and to the point and stirs up in any heart a sense of anger at the injustice served by the rich man and a deep sense of sympathy and compassion for the poor man, whose cherished and only ewe lamb is seized needlessly by the rich man to furnish his table upon the arrival of a ‘stranger’. It is an extraordinary accomplishment in such a few words and the effect it had on David, who recognised in it the utterly despicable nature of his adultery and murderous crime, was just as striking. The story exemplifies the notion of juxtaposition or casting something alongside the truth being taught for the sake of comparison, that we have come to recognise as ‘parable’. It is the Lord who communicates in this way with David through the intermediary of the prophet Nathan because “the thing that David had done displeased the Lord” (2 S 11:27). By a careful selection of words, Nathan, who has the very difficult task of communicating God’s displeasure to David, leads the king to unsuspectingly pronounce judgment on his own deeds. “You are the man”, Nathan reveals the truth to David (2 S 12:7). In a similar way, the parable of the wicked tenants (husbandmen) (Mt 21:33-45) causes Jesus’ hearers to pronounce judgement on themselves without being aware of it, through the insertion of λέγουσιν αὐτῷ in Mt 21:41. This is also the case in the parable of the Two Sons (Mt 21:31) and in the Sinful Woman forgiven (Lk 7:43).[5] The parable has been described in different ways: Simon categorises it as a ’juridical parable’ in that it “constitutes a realistic story about a violation of the law, related to someone who had committed a similar offence with the purpose of leading the unsuspecting hearer to pass judgment on himself”.[6] For MacDougall, it is a ‘parable of fact’ as opposed to one of ‘fable’ or ‘fancy’[7] although Von Rad regarded it as a ‘fable’ of which many are applied in a political context. “In the fable, there occurs a veiling of something everyday, a kind of alienation in the direction of the unreal and the fabulous. But precisely in this strange dress the truth is more forceful than in the everyday where it is so easily overlooked”[8] In MacDougall’s estimation, the Old Testament parables provided the “scheme, the system, the power and the genius of parabolic teaching.”[9] [1] BURNET, J., Platonis opera, vol. 2. ΣΩ. Ἐρρήθη γάρ που τότε ἐν τῇ παραβολῇ τῶν βίων μηδὲν δεῖν μήτε μέγα μήτε σμικρὸν χαίρειν τῷ τὸν τοῦ νοεῖν καὶ φρονεῖν βίον ἑλομένῳ. soc. Yes, for it was said, you know, in our comparison of the lives that he who chose the life of mind and wisdom was to have no feeling of pleasure, great or small. [2] ROSS, W.D. Aristotelis ars rhetorica [3] The parable of the Poor Man’s Ewe lamb continues to form a part of the Catholic Lectionary and is read on Saturday of Week 3 of Ordinary Time (Cycle II) including David’s penitence (2 S 12:1-7, 10-17). The gospel reading is Mk 4:35-41, the calming of the storm. The psalm is 50: A pure heart create for me O God. [4] SIMON, Uriel. “The Poor Man’s Ewe-Lamb, An Example of a Juridical Parable” p.220 [5] Cf. JEREMIAS, J. The Parables of Jesus, p.28 [6] SIMON, Uriel. “The Poor Man’s Ewe-Lamb, An Example of a Juridical Parable”, pp. 220-221 [7] MacDOUGALL, John. The Old Testament Parables, pp. 9-10. [8] VON RAD, G. Wisdom in Israel, p.42 [9] MacDOUGALL, John. The Old Testament Parables, pp. 9-10. REFERENCES
BURNET, J. Platonis opera, vol. 2, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1901 (repr. 1967): St II.11a-67b. [Online: http://stephanus.tlg.uci.edu/Iris/Cite?0059:010:55521] JEREMIAS, Joachim. The Parables of Jesus, (3rd Revised Edition). London: SCM Press Ltd, 1972 Translation based on that of: S.H. Hooke from German Die Gleichnisse Jesu, 6th edition published 1962 by Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Gottingen. Revised Edition. Chatham: W. & M. Mackay & Co. Ltd, 1963. MACDOUGALL, John. The Old Testament Parables. London: James Clarke and Company, 1934. ROSS, W.D. Aristotelis ars rhetorica, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959 (repr. 1964): 1-191 (1354a1-1420a8). [Online: http://stephanus.tlg.uci.edu/Iris/Cite?0086:038:326191] SIMON, Uriel. “The Poor Man’s Ewe-Lamb, An Example of a Juridical Parable” Biblica, 1967, Vol 48, No. 2 pp.207-242. [Online https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/23488221.pdf?ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gSIMON, Uriel. VON RAD, Gerhard. Wisdom in Israel. First published in German under title Weisheit in Israel, Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1970. English translation James D. Martin. London: SCM Press Ltd., 1993.
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We have St Luke's Gospel to thank for those extraordinary details of Mary’s life, and the wonderful tenderness of the Nativity. St Luke is also known for his parables, of which at least fifteen are unique to his gospel. These parables are part of the reason Luke’s gospel is often referred to as the ‘Gospel of mercy’ or that in the collect for the Mass on his feast day, the Church refers to him as the saint who reveals “by his preaching and writings the mystery of [God’s] love for the poor”. The parable of The Good Samaritan (Lk 10:25-37) belongs to that Lucan tradition and it is proclaimed on the 15th Sunday of Ordinary Time in Year C of the liturgical calender. It expresses a deeply Christian truth, but has a universal human appeal. The person who is a ‘neighbour’ cannot indifferently pass by the suffering of another and the association of this vivid parable with basic human solidarity has meant that it has even been adopted by name into civil laws designed to ‘oblige’ Samaritan-like behaviour in countries that are not of the Judaeo-Christian tradition. The Good Samaritan has been a constant in the minds of Christians throughout Church history. It is represented in the illuminations of the 6th century Rossano Gospels and was one of the four most popular subjects depicted in 13th century French cathedrals. Used by St Pope Paul VI to sum up the pastoral attitude of the Second Vatican Council Fathers, the parable has figured prominently in the writings of each post-Conciliar Pope not least in its application to ‘health care’ for which it has a particular relevance. Pope St John Paul II declared it to be the parable that “best articulates the heart of the health care mission and ministry of Jesus Christ.” Most recently, it has been applied to “the care of persons in the critical and terminal phases of life” in the document Samaritanus Bonus (SB, 2020), published by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF). This document responds of course to arguments raised in support of euthanasia, but invites us also to consider the Gospel account more deeply. In Luke’s text, we hear that the Samaritan is “moved with compassion” when he “sees” the man who has fallen prey to the brigands. The Greek verb used by Luke ἐσπλαγχνίσθη implies a very visceral or deep seated reaction. The corresponding noun σπλάγχνα can refer to the gut, the intestines or even the womb. His pity is instantaneous and his ‘seeing’ produces a very different response to that of the first two passers-by. Up to this point in his Gospel, Luke has only used this word to describe Jesus’ reaction to the widow of Nain who has lost her son (7:13) and this is just one of three action verbs linking the parable to that one. Both Jesus at Nain and the Samaritan in the parable “see” the problem, “are moved with compassion” and “approach” the dead or half-dead individual. Thus, the model behaviour of the Samaritan has, for Luke, already and only ever been demonstrated by Jesus himself. Luke uses the verb once more in the parable of The Prodigal Son to describe the father’s compassionate response (15:20). The Samaritan’s compassion is manifested in the series of actions by which he cares for the man. He uses the resources he has available (oil and wine and his own animal), including his own money (two silver coins – i.e., two days’ wages). He gives of his own time (the next day). He gets other people to help (the innkeeper). He promises to follow up (on my way back). It is interesting that we never hear the outcome—did the man survive or did he eventually succumb to his injuries? This is not considered by Luke to be a necessary detail. Remarking the contrasting attitudes of the Priest, Levite and Samaritan when they “see” the man in need of help, Benedict XVI characterises the program of the Good Samaritan as “a heart that sees” (Deus Caritas Est, DCE 31b), a theme taken up in SB and by Pope Francis in Fratelli tutti. SB views this quality as “central to the program of the Good Samaritan” and linked to a compassionate heart which is touched and then engaged. The Samaritan stops to show care. He sees where love is needed and acts accordingly (DCE 31). He recognises in weakness God’s call to appreciate the place of human life as the primary common good of society. It is a sacred and inviolable gift and is the basis for the enjoyment of all other goods, including man’s transcendent vocation to a unique relationship with the Giver of life (Evangelium Vitae, EV 49). In Part III which is dedicated to the ‘seeing heart’, SB indicates the source of man’s original dignity as that which comes from being created in the image of God with the calling to exist in “the image and glory of God” (1 Cor 11:7; 2 Cor 3:18). Often a ‘loss of dignity’ is cited as a justification for euthanasia, but this could perhaps be better expressed as loss of a ‘sense of dignity’ or ‘self-worth’, which is not the same. Both John Paul II (Veritatis Splendor, VS 14) and Benedict XVI make the link between the Lucan parable and the Last Judgement (Mt 25: 31-46), which demonstrates that love becomes “the criterion for the definitive decision about a human life’s worth”. Jesus identifies himself with those in need (Mt 25:40) whereby “love of God and love of neighbour have become one: in the least of the brethren we find Jesus himself, and in Jesus we find God” (DCE 14). The “wine of hope” which was spoken of by St Augustine in his commentary on the parable is deemed by Benedict XVI to be the specific contribution of the Christian faith in the care of the sick and refers to the way in which God overcomes evil in the world. Pope Benedict XVI comments that “a society unable to accept the suffering of its members and incapable of helping to share their suffering, and to bear it inwardly through ‘compassion’ is a cruel and inhumane society” (Spe Salvi, SS 38). SB states that one of the greatest miseries and most profound sufferings in terminal illness consists in the loss of hope in the face of death. This hope is a fruit of the Paschal Mystery of Christ, who conquers sin and death and is proclaimed by the Christian witness. The Good Samaritan puts the face of his brother in difficulty at the centre of his heart, and sees his need, offers him whatever is required to repair his wound of desolation and to open his heart to the luminous beams of hope (SB). SB concludes that the mystery of the Redemption of the human person is in an astonishing way rooted in the loving involvement of God with human suffering, which is what the parable of The Good Samaritan communicates to us. Even within a “throwaway culture” Christian witness demonstrates that hope is always possible. Anne The birth of Jesus in Bethlehem is the most awe-inspiring, glorious event in history. Christians recognise and celebrate this as the central event of history. However, what can sometimes go unnoticed is how Jesus’ coming was announced and prepared for throughout the ages: God in his loving kindness never abandoned his creation and humankind. Instead, God cared for them, progressively taught and led them in such a way as to prepare them for his coming “in the fullness of time”. In the unfolding of the story there are great characters and perennial lessons to be learnt. Some figures and scenes are especially familiar to us – but whether or not we are familiar with the general thrust of the storyline, these accounts deserve to be looked at more closely and pondered. The story of Joseph is forever vivid in our minds, closely associated with his coat of many colours. Joseph is rejected and mistreated by his brothers, sold into slavery and taken off to Egypt. Amongst the many lessons, we are shown the path of forgiveness and the providential care of God – nothing is impossible to him, everything can be taken up and brought to bear fruit. The account in Genesis develops many stages, which lead to a situation where the brothers, driven by famine, come in search of grain to Egypt and the house of Pharoah. With great drama, the saga culminates in Joseph revealing himself and forgiving his siblings. Furthermore, Joseph declares that although his brothers had intended to harm him, God intended to bring good from the situation and to save many (Genesis 45:5). Joseph’s stunning declaration can encourage us in our own lives. The story of course foreshadows the great story of redemption: the saving work of Jesus. For us today, we can be encouraged and strengthened in hope: nothing is beyond the reach of grace. We may see the signs of brokenness and woundedness in ourselves and others; we may be confronted with difficult situations. However, we can always have hope, and place our trust in the Lord and ask for his grace, take the step and do what is ours to do. The story of Joseph, and how it fits within the greater plan of salvation is one which can be a source of great encouragement for us today. Some two thousand years later, we commemorate how that story of salvation unfolded and led to the birth of Our Lord. We recall with wonder and gratitude how Jesus was born to his mother Mary, in Bethlehem. But, not only do we cast our minds back and remember that past event. Today, as Christians, we are called to recognise that Jesus came and also to dare to claim that He had future generations in mind. He is not some impersonal saviour of the masses: Jesus came for me, for you. He awaits and indeed longs for each one of us to know his saving love and welcome him with trust. Trish Images: [Top Right] Giovanni Andrea de Ferrari 'Joseph's Coat Brought to Jacob', oil on canvas, c. 1640. [Bottom Right] Bl. Fra Angelico. Christ in Judgement (detail from the vault, Orvieto Cathedral) The Promised Land which was a focus for Israel’s journey out of slavery to freedom was described as “A land flowing with milk and honey” (Exodus 3:8). The words are laden with a dynamic sense of well being and plenty. When we hear this description today, milk and honey might not appeal to us too much, but we know that the meaning is that what the Lord wants for us involves abundance; the life he invites us to share is indeed good, he came that we might have “life to the full” (John 10:10). I’m talking about honey and bees and the things of bees because I’ve started beekeeping. The hive arrived in May and I can safely say that it has been an uninterrupted series of learning experiences since then. Who could imagine that so much could be going on in the little world that is a hive! There’s always a surprise, something unexpected at each of the regular inspections (in summertime... not now that winter has set in!) It reminds me of getting a present as a child...the jolt of surprise at the unexpected, the unimaginable - which is delightful! What a marvel it is too to see the way the colony works with a common purpose - each bee doing their bit, carrying out their task, each tiny drop of nectar combining to make the store of honey, the phenomenal detail of the wax comb which holds the honey. The beauty and marvel of creation shines out in a wonderful way in this little world of bees and it’s a joy to get a glimpse of it! The honey too is delicious - it isn’t for nothing that the Land to be reached was described as “a land flowing with milk and honey”. Trish. |
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